Table 3 Ecosystems changing and evolving

As urban areas mature or as natural features are added (e.g. parks or water), local ecosystems may grow, evolve or become more resilient (Moglia et al. 2021). However, as mentioned above, they may also be damaged or destroyed through human activity, or a combination of human, animal or natural causes (e.g. drought, erosion, floods, fire) (Adger and Kelly 2001).

Impact on people (examples)

Impact on urban environment (examples)

Healthy ecosystems support human health and enhance local wellbeing through food production, improved air and water quality, and access to nature. Conversely, the lack of certain ecosystems, or depleted ecosystems can increase human vulnerability to heat, flooding, disease, and other threats (Bullock et al. 2018).

The relationship between place and local ecosystems depends on the extent of green and blue areas, habitats, and other natural features within a community. The evolution and changing of ecosystems impact local built and natural environments through vegetation, biodiversity, erosion, heat, wind, ground water and flood regulation, among other issues. These elements affect urban spaces, buildings, and infrastructure in multiple ways including weathering, climate-related damage, or structural impacts (Tzoulas et al. 2007).

Example of synergy: Creation of a new neighbourhood park providing older people with space for physical exercise, social engagement, and access to nature, while also providing new urban ecosystems within the area.

Example of antagonism: ‘Green gentrification’ linked to urban greening (Rigolon and Collins 2022) can negatively impact a local community, but may place additional burdens on older people due to economic vulnerability, social exclusion, and other gentrification related forces (Buffel et al. 2012).