Table 2 Urban environment, growth, and change

Urban areas grow, shrink, and undergo fine-grained adaptations at the level of buildings, materials, technology (Friedman 2020). Emigration, development, de-industrialization, gentrification, and other environmental, economic, political or cultural forces also bring about change in a community (Delmelle 2017).

Impact on People (examples)

Impact on Ecosystems (examples)

Urban development impacts community health on multiple levels including housing, safety, air quality, physical activity, and accessibility (Institute of Public Health in Ireland 2006). Meanwhile, urban change, that results in dereliction and vacancy, can also negatively affect community and individual health and wellbeing by undermining community confidence, creating conflict between neighbours, attracting crime, or creating a sense of fear (Garvin et al. 2013).

The provision as parks, green roofs or green walls can protect and enhance local ecosystems (Tzoulas et al. 2007). However, development can degrade or destroy ecosystems through altered land uses, disruption to biodiversity and hydrosystems, waste discharge, or air pollution (Grimm et al. 2008).

Example of synergy: Neighbourhood public realm upgrade and greening programme, firstly improving accessibility for older people, and secondly increasing biodiversity and ecosystem resilience.

Example of antagonism: Urban regeneration displacing existing housing occupied by older people, while and also destroying ecosystems through development of local green areas.